Sinusitis diagnostics and treatments

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are compositions for improving sinus microbiota and treating sinusits. Further provided are methods of detecting imbalance in the sinus microbiota that can be indicative of sinusitis, and methods of determining whether an individual has or is at risk of developing sinusitis, e.g., chronic sinusitis.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Sinusitis (rhinosinusitis) is one of the most common problems presentedto the primary care practitioner in the ambulatory setting, affectingmore than 15% of the US population annually, resulting in over $5.8billion in direct health care expenditures (1). Typically classified byduration of symptoms, sinusitis may be acute (less than 4 weeks induration), sub-acute (4-12 weeks) or chronic (more than 12 weeks, withor without acute exacerbations).

Chronic Rhinosinusitis (CRS), represents a large portion of sinusitiscases, affecting more than 30 million Americans (2), resulting in anannual economic health care burden in excess of $2.4 billion.Culture-based studies have demonstrated chronic bacterial and/or fungalcolonization of CRS patient sinus cavities implicating these species inthe pathophysiology of CRS. Despite these findings, the microbiology andimmunology underlying CRS remains poorly described, controversial, andto date no clear etiology has been described (3). Known bacterialpathogens, such as Staphylococcus and Streptococcus species isolatedfrom CRS sinuses and implicated in the disease (4-7), have also beendetected in the nasopharynx of healthy individuals with no sinussymptomology (8). These results indicate that the composition of themicrobiota at discrete mucosal sites may define the abundance andpathogenic behavior of specific members of the assemblage. Suchobservations suggest that local microbiota composition plays a key rolein protection against pathogen overgrowth and virulence gene expression,and that perturbations to local microbiota composition can contribute toinfectious and inflammatory disease etiology.

The sinuses are lined with respiratory epithelia that supportcolonization by a diverse microbiome at upper respiratory sites, e.g.,oropharynx (8, 11). Little is known of the composition of the residentmicrobiome of the paranasal sinuses and the contribution of theseassemblages to sinus mucosal health. Microbiological studies of thisniche are based on culture-based approaches, which under-estimate thediversity of species present. The present disclosure describes resultsfrom culture-independent approaches, and thus provides a more accuratepicture of sinus microbiome composition. The presently disclosed resultsshow comparative analyses of healthy and diseased (sinusitis) samples,revealing both gross community characteristics and discrete specieshighly associated with health status.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Described herein are results from a high-resolution, culture-independentcomparative analysis of the sinus microbiota of chronic rhinosinusitis(CRS) patients, and healthy subjects without CRS undergoing open nasalor sinus surgery. Surgical patients typically exhibit severe disease,and surgery provides access to affected sinus mucosal surfaces that areotherwise inaccessible. The results indicate that specific features ofthe sinus mucosal microbiota are associated with disease state andseverity, and identify both pathogenic and protective species in thisniche.

Provided herein are novel probiotics for improving the sinus microbiotain an individual comprising at least one bacteria listed in Table X,e.g., a Lactic Acid Bacterial (LAB) species, a Lactobacillus species, orL. sakei. Such probiotics can be used to treat an individual withreduced microbial diversity in the nasal sinus, or one that has beendiagnosed with acute or chronic sinusitis. In some embodiments, providedis a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one bacterialspecies listed in Table X, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient,e.g., for nasal or sinus administration. In some embodiments, thecomposition comprises at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40,50, 100, or more of the bacteria listed in Table X. In some embodiments,the composition comprises at least one LAB species. In some embodiments,the composition comprises L. sakei. In some embodiments, the compositionconsists essentially of L. sakei, that is, other bacterial species, ifpresent at all, are not detectable, or not present in quantitiessufficient to colonize the sinonasal mucosa.

Further provided are methods for improving the sinus microbiota (e.g.,increasing the microbial diversity, increasing the relative amount ofbeneficial bacteria such as those listed in Table X, or reducing thelevel of pathogenic bacteria such as Corynebacteria) in an individualcomprising administering at least one bacteria listed in Table X (e.g.,a Lactic Acid Bacterial (LAB) species, a Lactobacillus species, or L.sakei); and allowing the bacteria to colonize the sinonasal mucosa. Suchmethods can be used to treat an individual diagnosed with sinusitis, ordisplaying sinusitis symptoms. In some embodiments, the administering isnasal, e.g., using a spray, aerosol, syringe, irrigation, or nasaldrops. In some embodiments, the maxillary sinus is colonized. In someembodiments, the ethmoid sinus is colonized. In some embodiments, thefrontal sinus is colonized. In some embodiments, the sphenoid sinus iscolonized.

In some embodiments, at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40,50, 100, or more of the bacteria listed in Table X are administered. Insome embodiments, at least one Lactic Acid Bacterial (LAB) species isadministered. In some embodiments, Lactobacillus sakei is administered.In some embodiments, L. sakei is the only bacteria administered in aneffective amount (e.g., sufficient to colonize the sinonasal mucosa).

In some embodiments, the method further comprises detecting themicrobial diversity of the sinonasal mucosa of the individual, beforeand/or after the administering. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises detecting the relative level of Corynebacteria (e.g., C.tuberculostearicum and/or segmentosum) in a mucosal sample (e.g.,sinonasal sample) from the individual and comparing the relative levelof Corynebacterium in the sample to a control of Corynebacterium levels,before and/or after the administering.

Also provided are diagnostic methods, e.g., for determining if anindividual has or is at risk of developing sinusitis. In someembodiments, the method of determining whether an individual has or isat risk of developing sinusitis, comprises detecting the relative levelof Corynebacteria in a mucosal sample from the individual; comparing therelative level of Corynebacteria in the sample to a control ofCorynebacteria levels; and determining that the individual has or is atrisk of developing sinusitis where the relative level of Corynebacteriain the sample is higher than the control, wherein the control is anon-sinusitis control, or in the range of the control, wherein thecontrol is a sinusitis-positive control. In some embodiments, themucosal sample is from the maxillary sinus of the individual. In someembodiments, the mucosal sample is from the ethmoid, frontal, orsphenoid sinus of the individual. In some embodiments, theCorynebacteria is Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum.

In some embodiments, the method of determining whether an individual hasor is at risk of developing sinusitis, comprises detecting the relativelevel of at least one bacteria from Table X (e.g., a LAB species, e.g.,L. sakei) in a mucosal sample from the individual; comparing therelative level of the at least one bacteria from Table X to a control ofthe level for the at least one bacteria; and determining that theindividual has or is at risk of developing sinusitis where the relativelevel of the at least one bacteria from Table X in the sample is lowerthan the control, wherein the control is a non-sinusitis control, or inthe range of the control, wherein the control is a sinusitis-positivecontrol. In some embodiments, the mucosal sample is from the maxillarysinus of the individual. In some embodiments, the mucosal sample is fromthe ethmoid, frontal, or sphenoid sinus of the individual. In someembodiments, the at least one bacteria is a LAB species, e.g., aLactobacillus species.

In some embodiments, such methods further obtaining a mucosal samplefrom the sinonasal mucosa, e.g., the maxillary sinus, of the individualbefore detecting. In some embodiments, a mucosal sample is taken fromthe ethmoid, frontal, or sphenoid sinus. In some embodiments, the methodis used to confirm a diagnosis of sinusitis using an alternative method,e.g., detection of elevated Muc5A expression or mucosal inflammation, ora higher than normal SNOT-20 score.

In some embodiments, such methods further comprise administering asinusitis therapeutic agent to the individual based on a determinationthat the individual has or is at risk of developing sinusitis. In someembodiments, the sinusitis therapeutic is a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising at least one bacteria listed in Table X. In some embodiments,the pharmaceutical composition comprises at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 or more bacteria listed in Table X. In someembodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises a Lactic AcidBacterial (LAB) species, e.g., a Lactobacillus species such as L. sakei.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Muc5A mRNA expression (normalized to β-actin) is significantlyincreased in CRS patient samples compared to healthy subjects.

FIG. 2. Bacterial community Richness (A), Evenness (B) and Shannondiversity (C) indices are significantly lower in CRS patient sinusescompared with healthy individuals, indicating gross perturbation to thesinus mucosal microbiota in the disease state. FIG. 2D: Hierarchalcluster analysis demonstrates that the majority of healthy individualscluster into a group distinct from CRS patients, indicating that sinusmicrobiome composition of healthy individuals is distinct form that ofCRS patients. A heat-plot of sinus symptom severity (based on SNOT-20scores) demonstrates that altered sinus microbiome composition isrelated to sinus health status.

FIG. 3. Phylogenetic tree demonstrating the breadth of bacterialcommunity members exhibiting significant positive or negativecorrelations with sinus symptom severity (determined by SNOT-20 score).Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum and C. segmentosum exhibited strongand significant positive correlations with severity of sinussymptomology, implicating them in disease etiology. Other communitymembers illustrated, e.g., in Table X, exhibited significant negativecorrelations with sinus symptomology. The results indicate that thesespecies maintain sinus mucosal health.

FIG. 4. Linear regression of Q-PCR-derived C. tuberculostearicumabundance with array reported florescence intensity (A) and SNOT-20score (B) indicate strong concordance between Q-PCR and array-generatedfindings and confirm a strong positive relationship between C.tuberculostearicum abundance and symptom severity.

FIG. 5. Murine experimental design. Amox=Amoxicillun; Clau=Clavulanate.

FIG. 6. A. PAS stained histological sections of murine sinusesrepresentative of animals in each treatment group treated with acombination of antibiotic and C. tuberculostearicum. Panel i-iv.Triplicate views of maxillary sinuses from 2 mice per treatment groupwere used to determine physiology (representative images are shown).Mice treated with a combination of antibiotic and C. tuberculostearicumshow significantly increased goblet cell hyperplasia (indicated byarrows) and mucin hypersecretion compared to other treatment groups(panel iii). B. Goblet cell enumeration illustrates that, compared toother treatment groups, animals treated with a combination of antibioticand C. tuberculostearicum exhibit significant increases in goblet cellnumber per μm of epithelium.

FIG. 7. Q-PCR quantification of C. tuberculostearium and L. sakei loadin murine sinus tissue. Asterisk (*) denotes statistical significance(p<0.05). Total 16S rRNA copy number per species was normalized to knownnumber of 16S rRNA copies per genome for each species.

FIG. 8. A. PAS stained histological sections of murine sinusesrepresentative of animals in each treatment group at 60× magnification(panel i-v). Animals treated with a combination of antibiotic and L.sakei (panel iv) exhibit epithelial physiology comparable to untreatedor antibiotic treated controls (panels i and ii), while animals treatedwith a combination of antibiotic and C. tuberculostearicum exhibitgoblet cell hyperplasia (indicated by arrows) and mucin hypersecretion.Panel v demonstrates that mice treated with antibiotics prior toco-instillation of C. tuberculostearicum and L. sakei exhibit epithelialphysiology comparable to control animals, indicating that L. sakei isprotective against the pathogenic effects of C. tuberculostearicum.Triplicate views of maxillary sinuses from 2 mice per treatment groupwere used to determine physiology (representative images are shown). B.Enumeration of goblet cells per μm of epithelium confirms thathyperplasia is associated with a high abundance of C. tuberculostearicumin the sinuses. Instillation of L. sakei does not induce hyperplasia,and co-instillation of L. sakei with C. tuberculostearicum actuallyprevents the pathological response to C. tuberculostearicum.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Introduction

Persistent mucosal inflammation and microbial infection arecharacteristic of Chronic Rhinosinusitis (CRS). The relationship betweensinus microbiota composition and CRS is unknown. The present disclosuredescribes comparative microbiome profiling of a cohort of CRS patientsand healthy subjects, demonstrating that the sinus microbiota of CRSpatients exhibit significantly reduced bacterial diversity.Characteristic of this community collapse is the depletion of multiple,phylogenetically distinct Lactic Acid Bacteria and the concomitantincrease in relative abundance of Corynebacteria, in particular, C.tuberculostearicum. The conditions of the human cohort were reproducedin a murine model, and confirmed the pathogenic potential of C.tuberculostearicum, as well as the benefit of a diverse, properlycomposed mucosal microbiota to protect against C. tuberculostearicum.Moreover, the results show that Lactobacillus sakei, identified fromcomparative microbiome analyses as protective, affords defense againstC. tuberculostearicum sinus infection, even in the context of a depletedsinus bacterial community. The results demonstrate that sinus mucosalhealth depends on the local composition of resident microbiota,identifies a novel sinusitis associated pathogen, and a probiotictherapy for sinusitis.

Human health is dependent on the diverse microbial assemblages thatinhabit discrete host niches, particularly mucosal-associated surfaces.To date, culture-based approaches to characterize the etiological agentof CRS have provided a reductionist and somewhat discordant view of themicrobiology associated with this disease.

The culture-independent approaches described herein allow the diversityof microbiomes in specific host sites to be better characterized(19-24), including compositional and functional changes in diseasestates (25), and microbes highly correlated with symptom severity (20)or immune responses (26). The present results show that the compositionof the resident microbiota in a given niche can strongly influence thebehavior of specific species, particularly a pathogen.

A clear signal emerged from the present results demonstrating that thesinus microbiota of CRS patient cohort were characterized by bothgrossly depleted communities and a significant increase in relativeabundance of C. tuberculostearicum. Though phylogenetically its closestbacterial relatives include Mycobacteria and Nocardia, genera synonymouswith pathogenesis, C. tuberculostearicum is customarily considered aninnocuous member of the healthy skin microbiota, and an unlikelyetiological agent of CRS. The presently described murine model ofsinusitis confirmed both the pathogenic potential of C.tuberculostearicum and that its impact on sinus epithelial responses wassignificantly enhanced in the absence of a replete sinus microbiota.Demonstration that a bacterial species that commonly inhabits humanskin, represents an etiological agent of CRS illustrates why theetiology of CRS, and likely other chronic inflammatory diseases has beenso difficult to define.

The role of the microbiome, LAB species in particular, in modulating theimpact of C. tuberculostearicum on sinus mucosal responses likelyexplains why it was not previously considered a pathogen. Thisphenomenon may also explain why, despite detection of known pathogens inthe healthy subject sinus microbiota, these subjects exhibit nosymptomology and, more broadly, provide an explanation as to whyseemingly similar patients, exhibiting comparable quantities of knownpathogenic species, may exhibit dramatically different clinicaloutcomes.

One advantage to the present comparative study design is the ability toidentify those species associated with healthy sinuses that providemucosal protection. The murine sinusitis model provided an opportunityto determine whether such species may afford protection against thepathophysiology induced by a combination of depleted microbiota and C.tuberculostearicum. The results demonstrate that L. sakei represents anovel probiotic therapeutic for the treatment of sinusitis sub-types,including CRS. Several members of the Lactobacillaceae, including L.sakei, as well as other LABs and lactic acid producing members of theFirmicutes were significantly depleted in CRS maxillary sinus. Theobservation indicates that these species (e.g., through bacteriocin orlactic acid production (30, 31)) can out-compete pathogenic species,shape the sinus mucosal microbiota, and protect this niche from pathogenovergrowth.

The present results also have significant implications for the excessiveuse of antimicrobials, which contribute to microbiota depletion, in thetreatment of viral sinusitis and other upper respiratory infections. Thedata suggest that microbial supplementation during periods of acutesinusitis with one or a combination of presently identified specieswould be more appropriate.

II. Definitions

Unless defined otherwise, technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by a person of ordinaryskill in the art. See, e.g., Lackie, DICTIONARY OF CELL AND MOLECULARBIOLOGY, Elsevier (4^(th) ed. 2007); Sambrook et al., MOLECULAR CLONING,A LABORATORY MANUAL, Cold Springs Harbor Press (Cold Springs Harbor, NY1989). The term “a” or “an” is intended to mean “one or more.” The term“comprise” and variations thereof such as “comprises” and “comprising,”when preceding the recitation of a step or an element, are intended tomean that the addition of further steps or elements is optional and notexcluded. Any methods, devices and materials similar or equivalent tothose described herein can be used in the practice of this invention.The following definitions are provided to facilitate understanding ofcertain terms used frequently herein and are not meant to limit thescope of the present disclosure.

The term “colonize” in the context of the present disclosure refers tomicrobial growth and expansion. For example, a population of bacteriacan be said to colonize an environment if it survives in the environmentthrough at least one round of cell division.

The term “bacterial load” refers to a measure of the total number ofbacteria in a given environment, e.g., an airway mucosal surface. Thebacterial load is typically expressed as colony forming units (CFU) perml, per gram of sample or tissue, or per surface area.

The term “microbiome” refers to the community of microbes andenvironmental interactions in a defined environment. The microbiome alsoincludes the genetic makeup of the microbes. Mucosal surfaces areexamples of microbiomes in animals, e.g., the gut, airways, sinus,vagina, oral cavity, etc. Skin, and particular skin areas, compriseadditional microbiomes. The term is derived from the term “biome” whichcan be used synonymously with ecosystem to refer to a larger scaleenvironment and its inhabitants.

The term “improving the sinus microbiota” refers to increasing microbialdiversity, increasing the relative amount of beneficial bacteria (e.g.,bacteria listed in Table X), or reducing the relative amount of bacteriawith high levels in sinusitis patients (e.g., Corynebacteria).

Microbial diversity refers to the range of different species or strainspresent in a sample. The sample can be highly diverse, with acomparatively wide range of taxa, or lacking in diversity, e.g., withcomparatively few taxa represented compared to a normal control.Microbial diversity can be expressed in general comparative terms (e.g.,more or less diverse, compared to a normal, healthy control). Microbialdiversity can also be expressed in absolute numbers or ranges ofnumbers, e.g., more than 1000 species or strains, or 500-100, 50-100 or,25-50 species or strains, etc. in a given environment.

The amount of a particular strain or species of bacteria can beexpressed in absolute numbers or ranges of numbers, e.g., 10⁶ or 10⁶-10⁷Lactobacillus in a sample, or in a given volume. The amount can also beexpressed in terms of colony forming units, or absorbance, depending onthe assay used for bacterial detection, as will be appreciated by one ofskill. The amount can also be expressed in comparative terms, e.g.,compared to a control. The relative level of a given strain or speciesrefers to the amount relative to other strains or species within thesample. For example, a high relative level of a Corynebacterial strainindicates that the amount of Corynebacterial strain, as a percentage oftotal microbes, is higher than that of a normal control. This can be dueto depletion of other species in the microbiome, or because of highlevels of Corynebacteria.

“Lactic acid bacteria” (LAB) refers to species that fall into the orderof Gram-positive Lactobacillalese. LAB genera include: Lactobacillus,Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Lactococcus, and Streptococcus, as well asAerococcus, Carnobacterium, Enterococcus, and Tetragenococcus.

A “control” sample or value refers to a sample that serves as areference, usually a known reference, for comparison to a test sample.For example, a test sample can be taken from a patient suspected ofhaving sinusitis and compared to samples from a known sinusitis patient(positive or disease control) or a known normal (negative,non-sinusitis, non-disease, or healthy control) individual. A controlcan also represent an average range or value gathered from a populationof similar individuals, e.g., sinusitis patients or healthy individualswith a similar medical background, same age, weight, etc. A controlvalue can also be obtained from the same individual, e.g., from anearlier-obtained sample, prior to disease, or prior to treatment. One ofskill will recognize that controls can be designed for assessment of anynumber of parameters.

One of skill in the art will understand which controls are valuable in agiven situation and be able to analyze data based on comparisons tocontrol values. Controls are also valuable for determining thesignificance of data. For example, if values for a given parameter arewidely variant in controls, variation in test samples will not beconsidered as significant.

“Subject,” “patient,” “individual” and like terms are usedinterchangeably and refer to, except where indicated, humans andnon-human animals. The term does not necessarily indicate that thesubject has been diagnosed with a particular disease, but typicallyrefers to an individual under medical supervision. A patient can be anindividual that is seeking treatment, monitoring, adjustment ormodification of an existing therapeutic regimen, etc.

The term “in the range of the control” refers to a value that fallswithin the range of control values for a given control condition. Whereone value is given as a control, “in the range of the control” refers toa value that is not statistically different from the control asdetermined by one of skill in the art. For example, within the range ofthe control can be ±5%, 10%, 20%, or within 0.5-fold, 1-fold, or 2-folddifference from a control value at a given condition. One of skill willunderstand that corrective calculations can be made, e.g., to accountfor age, severity of condition, antibiotic use, etc.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” is usedsynonymously with physiologically acceptable and pharmacologicallyacceptable with respect to, e.g., a pharmaceutical composition. Apharmaceutical composition will generally comprise agents for bufferingand preservation in storage, and can include buffers and carriers forappropriate delivery, depending on the route of administration.

The terms “dose” and “dosage” are used interchangeably herein. A doserefers to the amount of active ingredient given to an individual at eachadministration. For the present invention, the dose will generally referto the amount of probiotic, antibiotic or anti-inflammatory agent.Dosage can also be expressed in terms of bacterial concentration. Thedose will vary depending on a number of factors, including frequency ofadministration; size and tolerance of the individual; severity of thecondition; risk of side effects; and the route of administration. One ofskill will recognize that the dose can be modified depending on theabove factors or based on therapeutic progress. The term “dosage form”refers to the particular format of the pharmaceutical, and depends onthe route of administration. For example, a dosage form can be in aliquid form for nebulization, e.g., for inhalants, in a tablet orliquid, e.g., for oral delivery, or a saline solution, e.g., forinjection.

As used herein, the terms “treat” and “prevent” are not intended to beabsolute terms. Treatment can refer to any delay in onset, reduction inthe frequency or severity of symptoms, amelioration of symptoms,improvement in patient comfort and/or respiratory function, etc. Theeffect of treatment can be compared to an individual or pool ofindividuals not receiving a given treatment, or to the same patientprior to, or after cessation of, treatment.

The term “prevent” refers to a decrease in the occurrence of sinusitissymptoms in a patient. As indicated above, the prevention may becomplete (no detectable symptoms) or partial, such that fewer symptomsare observed than would likely occur absent treatment.

The terms “effective amount” and “therapeutically effective amount,”refer to that amount of a therapeutic agent sufficient to ameliorate thetarget disorder. For example, for a given disease parameter, atherapeutically effective amount will show an increase or decrease of atleast 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 90%, or at least100%. Therapeutic efficacy can also be expressed as “-fold” increase ordecrease. For example, a therapeutically effective amount can have atleast a 1.2-fold, 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 5-fold, or more effect over acontrol.

The term “diagnosis” refers to a relative probability that a disease ispresent in the subject. Similarly, the term “prognosis” refers to arelative probability that a certain future outcome may occur in thesubject. The terms are not intended to be absolute, as will beappreciated by one of skill in the field of medical diagnostics.

“Nucleic acid” or “oligonucleotide” or “polynucleotide” or grammaticalequivalents used herein means at least two nucleotides covalently linkedtogether. Oligonucleotides are typically from about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,12, 15, 25, 30, 40, 50 or more nucleotides in length, up to about 100nucleotides in length. Nucleic acids and polynucleotides are a polymersof any length, including longer lengths, e.g., 200, 300, 500, 1000,2000, 3000, 5000, 7000, 10,000, etc. A nucleic acid of the presentinvention will generally contain phosphodiester bonds, although in somecases, nucleic acid analogs are included that may have alternatebackbones, comprising, e.g., phosphoramidate, phosphorothioate,phosphorodithioate, or O-methylphophoroamidite linkages (see Eckstein,Oligonucleotides and Analogues: A Practical Approach, Oxford UniversityPress); and peptide nucleic acid backbones and linkages. Other analognucleic acids include those with positive backbones; non-ionicbackbones, and non-ribose backbones, including those described in U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,235,033 and 5,034,506, and Chapters 6 and 7, ASC SymposiumSeries 580, Carbohydrate Modifications in Antisense Research, Sanghui &Cook, eds. Nucleic acids containing one or more carbocyclic sugars arealso included within one definition of nucleic acids. Modifications ofthe ribose-phosphate backbone may be done for a variety of reasons,e.g., to increase the stability and half-life of such molecules inphysiological environments or as probes on a biochip. Mixtures ofnaturally occurring nucleic acids and analogs can be made;alternatively, mixtures of different nucleic acid analogs, and mixturesof naturally occurring nucleic acids and analogs may be made.

The terms “polypeptide,” “peptide” and “protein” are usedinterchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. Theterms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acidresidue is an artificial chemical mimetic of a corresponding naturallyoccurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acidpolymers, those containing modified residues, and non-naturallyoccurring amino acid polymer.

The term “amino acid” refers to naturally occurring and synthetic aminoacids, as well as amino acid analogs and amino acid mimetics thatfunction similarly to the naturally occurring amino acids. Naturallyoccurring amino acids are those encoded by the genetic code, as well asthose amino acids that are later modified, e.g., hydroxyproline,γ-carboxyglutamate, and O-phosphoserine. Amino acid analogs refers tocompounds that have the same basic chemical structure as a naturallyoccurring amino acid, e.g., an a carbon that is bound to a hydrogen, acarboxyl group, an amino group, and an R group, e.g., homoserine,norleucine, methionine sulfoxide, methionine methyl sulfonium. Suchanalogs may have modified R groups (e.g., norleucine) or modifiedpeptide backbones, but retain the same basic chemical structure as anaturally occurring amino acid. Amino acid mimetics refers to chemicalcompounds that have a structure that is different from the generalchemical structure of an amino acid, but that functions similarly to anaturally occurring amino acid.

Amino acids may be referred to herein by either their commonly knownthree letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by theIUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. Nucleotides, likewise,may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes.

“Conservatively modified variants” applies to both amino acid andnucleic acid sequences. With respect to particular nucleic acidsequences, conservatively modified variants refers to those nucleicacids which encode identical or essentially identical amino acidsequences, or where the nucleic acid does not encode an amino acidsequence, to essentially identical or associated, e.g., naturallycontiguous, sequences. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, alarge number of functionally identical nucleic acids encode mostproteins. For instance, the codons GCA, GCC, GCG and GCU all encode theamino acid alanine. Thus, at every position where an alanine isspecified by a codon, the codon can be altered to another of thecorresponding codons described without altering the encoded polypeptide.Such nucleic acid variations are “silent variations,” which are onespecies of conservatively modified variations. Every nucleic acidsequence herein which encodes a polypeptide also describes silentvariations of the nucleic acid. One of skill will recognize that incertain contexts each codon in a nucleic acid (except AUG, which isordinarily the only codon for methionine, and TGG, which is ordinarilythe only codon for tryptophan) can be modified to yield a functionallyidentical molecule. Accordingly, often silent variations of a nucleicacid which encodes a polypeptide is implicit in a described sequencewith respect to the expression product, but not with respect to actualprobe sequences.

As to amino acid sequences, one of skill will recognize that individualsubstitutions, deletions or additions to a nucleic acid, peptide,polypeptide, or protein sequence which alters, adds or deletes a singleamino acid or a small percentage of amino acids in the encoded sequenceis a “conservatively modified variant” where the alteration results inthe substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid.Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar aminoacids are well known in the art. Such conservatively modified variantsare in addition to and do not exclude polymorphic variants, interspecieshomologs, and alleles of the invention.typically conservativesubstitutions for one another: 1) Alanine (A), Glycine (G); 2) Asparticacid (D), Glutamic acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4)Arginine (R), Lysine (K); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine(M), Valine (V); 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W); 7)Serine (S), Threonine (T); and 8) Cysteine (C), Methionine (M) (see,e.g., Creighton, Proteins (1984)).

The terms “label,” “tag,” “detectable moiety,” etc. refer tocompositions or components that are detectable by spectroscopic,photochemical, biochemical, immunochemical, chemical, or other physicalmeans. For example, useful labels include ³²P, fluorescent dyes,electron-dense reagents, enzymes (e.g., as commonly used in an ELISA),biotin, digoxigenin, or haptens and proteins or other entities which canbe made detectable, e.g., by incorporating a radiolabel into a peptideor antibody specifically reactive with a target peptide. Any methodknown in the art for conjugating an antibody to the label may beemployed, e.g., using methods described in Hermanson, BioconjugateTechniques 1996, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego.

A “labeled nucleic acid probe or oligonucleotide” is one that is bound,either covalently, through a linker or a chemical bond, ornoncovalently, through ionic, van der Waals, electrostatic, or hydrogenbonds to a label such that the presence of the probe may be detected bydetecting the presence of the label bound to the probe. Alternatively,method using high affinity interactions may achieve the same resultswhere one of a pair of binding partners binds to the other, e.g.,biotin, streptavidin.

The phrase “selectively (or specifically) hybridizes to” refers to thebinding, duplexing, or hybridizing of a molecule only to a particularnucleotide sequence with a higher affinity, e.g., under more stringentconditions, than to other nucleotide sequences (e.g., total cellular orlibrary DNA or RNA). One of skill in the art will appreciate thatspecific hybridization between nucleotides usually relies onWatson-Crick pair bonding between complementary nucleotide sequences.

The term “probe” or “primer”, as used herein, is defined to be one ormore nucleic acid fragments whose specific hybridization to a sample canbe detected. A probe or primer can be of any length depending on theparticular technique it will be used for. For example, PCR primers aregenerally between 10 and 40 nucleotides in length, while nucleic acidprobes for, e.g., a Southern blot, can be more than a hundrednucleotides in length. The probe may be unlabeled or labeled asdescribed below so that its binding to the target or sample can bedetected. The probe can be produced from a source of nucleic acids fromone or more particular (preselected) portions of a chromosome, e.g., oneor more clones, an isolated whole chromosome or chromosome fragment, ora collection of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification products.The length and complexity of the nucleic acid fixed onto the targetelement is not critical to the invention. One of skill can adjust thesefactors to provide optimum hybridization and signal production for agiven hybridization procedure, and to provide the required resolutionamong different genes or genomic locations.

The probe may also be isolated nucleic acids immobilized on a solidsurface (e.g., nitrocellulose, glass, quartz, fused silica slides), asin an array. In some embodiments, the probe may be a member of an arrayof nucleic acids as described, for instance, in WO 96/17958. Techniquescapable of producing high density arrays can also be used for thispurpose (see, e.g., Fodor (1991) Science 767-773; Johnston (1998) Curr.Biol. 8: R171-R174; Schummer (1997) Biotechniques 23: 1087-1092; Kern(1997) Biotechniques 23: 120-124; U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,854). One of skillwill recognize that the precise sequence of the particular probesdescribed herein can be modified to a certain degree to produce probesthat are “substantially identical” to the disclosed probes, but retainthe ability to specifically bind to (i.e., hybridize specifically to)the same targets or samples as the probe from which they were derived.Such modifications are specifically covered by reference to theindividual probes described herein.

The term “antibody” refers to a polypeptide structure, e.g., animmunoglobulin, conjugate, or fragment thereof that retains antigenbinding activity, e.g., for a bacterial antigen. The term includes butis not limited to polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies of the isotypeclasses IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, derived from human or othermammalian cells, including natural or genetically modified forms such ashumanized, human, single-chain, chimeric, synthetic, recombinant,hybrid, mutated, grafted, and in vitro generated antibodies. The termencompases conjugates, including but not limited to fusion proteinscontaining an immunoglobulin moiety (e.g., chimeric or bispecificantibodies or scFv's), and fragments, such as Fab, F(ab′)2, Fv, scFv,Fd, dAb and other compositions.

An exemplary immunoglobulin (antibody) structural unit comprises atetramer. Each tetramer is composed of two identical pairs ofpolypeptide chains, each pair having one “light” (about 25 kD) and one“heavy” chain (about 50-70 kD). The N-terminus of each chain defines avariable region of about 100 to 110 or more amino acids primarilyresponsible for antigen recognition. Typically, the “variable region”contains the antigen-binding region of the antibody (or its functionalequivalent) and is most critical in specificity and affinity of binding.See Paul, Fundamental Immunology (2003). The terms variable light chain(V_(L)) and variable heavy chain (V_(H)) refer to these light and heavychains respectively.

Antibodies can exist as intact immunoglobulins or as any of a number ofwell-characterized fragments produced by digestion with variouspeptidases. Pepsin digests an antibody below the disulfide linkages inthe hinge region to produce F(ab)′₂, a dimer of Fab which itself is alight chain joined to V_(H)-C_(H)1 by a disulfide bond. The F(ab)′₂ maybe reduced under mild conditions to break the disulfide linkage in thehinge region, thereby converting the F(ab)′, dimer into an Fab′ monomer.The Fab′ monomer is essentially Fab with part of the hinge region (seeFundamental Immunology (Paul ed., 3d ed. 1993). While various antibodyfragments are defined in terms of the digestion of an intact antibody,one of skill will appreciate that such fragments may be synthesized denovo either chemically or by using recombinant DNA methodology. Thus,the term antibody, as used herein, also includes antibody fragmentseither produced by the modification of whole antibodies, or thosesynthesized de novo using recombinant DNA methodologies (e.g., singlechain Fv) or those identified using phage display libraries (see, e.g.,McCafferty et al., Nature 348:552-554 (1990)).

As used herein, “V-region” refers to an antibody variable region domaincomprising the segments of Framework 1, CDR1, Framework 2, CDR2, andFramework 3, including CDR3 and Framework 4, which segments are added tothe V-segment as a consequence of rearrangement of the heavy chain andlight chain V-region genes during B-cell differentiation.

As used herein, “complementarity-determining region (CDR)” refers to thethree hypervariable regions in each chain that interrupt the four“framework” regions established by the light and heavy chain variableregions. The CDRs are primarily responsible for binding to an epitope ofan antigen. The CDRs of each chain are typically referred to as CDR1,CDR2, and CDR3, numbered sequentially starting from the N-terminus, andare also typically identified by the chain in which the particular CDRis located. Thus, a V_(H) CDR3 is located in the variable domain of theheavy chain of the antibody in which it is found, whereas a V_(L) CDR1is the CDR1 from the variable domain of the light chain of the antibodyin which it is found.

The terms “antigen,” “immunogen,” “antibody target,” “target analyte,”and like terms are used herein to refer to a molecule, compound, orcomplex that is recognized by an antibody, i.e., can be specificallybound by the antibody. The term can refer to any molecule that can bespecifically recognized by an antibody, e.g., a polypeptide,polynucleotide, carbohydrate, lipid, chemical moiety, or combinationsthereof (e.g., phosphorylated or glycosylated polypeptides, etc.). Oneof skill will understand that the term does not indicate that themolecule is immunogenic in every context, but simply indicates that itcan be targeted by an antibody. Examples of target antigens in thecontext of the present disclosure include bacterial antigens (e.g., fromC. tuberculostearicum, L. sakei, or an LAB species) anddisease-associated antigens, e.g., Muc5A.

Antibodies bind to an “epitope” on an antigen. The epitope is thelocalized site on the antigen that is recognized and bound by theantibody. Epitopes can include a few amino acids or portions of a fewamino acids, e.g., 5 or 6, or more, e.g., 20 or more amino acids, orportions of those amino acids. In some cases, the epitope includesnon-protein components, e.g., from a carbohydrate, nucleic acid, orlipid. In some cases, the epitope is a three-dimensional moiety. Thus,for example, where the target is a protein, the epitope can be comprisedof consecutive amino acids, or amino acids from different parts of theprotein that are brought into proximity by protein folding (e.g., adiscontinuous epitope). The same is true for other types of targetmolecules that form three-dimensional structures.

III. Diagnostic Methods

The present results reveal that sinusitis patients have greatly reducedmicrobial diversity in the sinonasal environment (e.g., maxillarysinus). In addition, Corynebacterial species (e.g., C.tuberculostearicum and segmentosum) are present at a higher level thanin normal healthy sinus mucosa, and correlate strongly with symptomseverity. Sinusitis can also be diagnosed, e.g., by detecting mucinlevels, mucosal inflammation, or with self-reporting of sinusinflammation symptoms. Diagnostic methods can be used alone or in anycombination.

Patients can thus be selected for therapy based on determination ofmicrobial diversity, reduced levels of beneficial probiotic species(e.g., those listed in Table X, Lactic Acid Bacteria, or L. sakei inparticular), or elevated levels of Corynebacteria. Anatomicalcharacterization, such as characterization of the sinus mucosal lining,can be accomplished using standard imaging techniques. Bacteria can bedetected using nucleic acid techniques as described herein (e.g.,arrays, hybridization, or PCR), using sequences complementary tospecies- or order-specific nucleic acid sequences. Antibodies specificfor particular bacterial species can also be utilized.

Methods of obtaining a mucosal sample from an individual are known inthe art. Such methods include swabbing or brushing the sinonasal mucosa,e.g., using anesthetic or endoscopic methods if necessary. In somecases, a mucosal biopsy is taken. Samples can also be obtained using anasal lavage or spray in sufficient volume to obtain sample from theappropriate location. Comparison of various sample gathering techniquesis described, e.g., in Roediger et al. (2010) Am J Rhinol Allergy24:263.

A diagnostic agent specific for the microbes described herein caninclude any label as known in the art, for example, in the followingreferences: Armstrong et al., Diagnostic Imaging, 5^(th) Ed., BlackwellPublishing (2004); Torchilin, V. P., Ed., Targeted Delivery of ImagingAgents, CRC Press (1995); Vallabhajosula, S., Molecular Imaging:Radiopharmaceuticals for PET and SPECT, Springer (2009). A diagnosticagent can be detected by a variety of ways, including as an agentproviding and/or enhancing a detectable signal. Detectable signalsinclude, but are not limited to, fluorescent, luminescent,gamma-emitting, radioactive, optical, absorptive, etc. The terms“detectable agent,” “detectable moiety,” “label,” “imaging agent,” andlike terms are used synonymously herein.

A radioisotope can be incorporated into the diagnostic agents describedherein and can include radionuclides that emit gamma rays, positrons,beta and alpha particles, and X-rays. Suitable radionuclides include butare not limited to ²²⁵Ac, ⁷²As, ²¹¹At, ¹¹B, ¹²⁸Ba, ²¹²Bi, ⁷⁵Br, ⁷⁷Br,¹⁴C, ¹⁰⁹Cd, ⁶²Cu, ⁶⁴Cu, ⁶⁷Cu, ¹⁸F, ⁶⁷Ga, ⁶⁸Ga, ³H, ¹⁶⁶Ho, ¹²³I, ¹²⁴I,¹²⁵I, ¹³⁰I, ¹³¹I, ¹¹¹In, ¹⁷⁷Lu, ¹³N, ¹⁵O, ³²P, ³³P, ²¹²Pb, ¹⁰³Pd, ¹⁸⁶Re,¹⁸⁸Re, ⁴⁷Sc, ¹⁵³Sm, ⁸⁹Sr, ^(99m)Tc, ⁸⁸Y and ⁹⁰Y.

In some embodiments, the diagnostic agent can be associated with asecondary binding ligand or to an enzyme (an enzyme tag) that willgenerate a colored product upon contact with a chromogenic substrate.Examples of suitable enzymes include urease, alkaline phosphatase,(horseradish) hydrogen peroxidase and glucose oxidase. Secondary bindingligands include, e.g., biotin and avidin or streptavidin compounds asknown in the art.

In some embodiments, the diagnostic agents can include optical agentssuch as fluorescent agents, phosphorescent agents, chemiluminescentagents, and the like. Numerous agents (e.g., dyes, probes, labels, orindicators) are known in the art and can be used in the presentinvention. (See, e.g., Invitrogen, The Handbook—A Guide to FluorescentProbes and Labeling Technologies, Tenth Edition (2005)). Fluorescentagents can include a variety of organic and/or inorganic small moleculesor a variety of fluorescent proteins and derivatives thereof. Forexample, fluorescent agents can include but are not limited to cyanines,phthalocyanines, porphyrins, indocyanines, rhodamines, phenoxazines,phenylxanthenes, phenothiazines, phenoselenazines, fluoresceins,benzoporphyrins, squaraines, dipyrrolo pyrimidones, tetracenes,quinolines, pyrazines, corrins, croconiums, acridones, phenanthridines,rhodamines, acridines, anthraquinones, chalcogenopyrylium analogues,chlorins, naphthalocyanines, methine dyes, indolenium dyes, azocompounds, azulenes, azaazulenes, triphenyl methane dyes, indoles,benzoindoles, indocarbocyanines, benzoindocarbocyanines, and BODIPY™derivatives.

IV. Methods and Compositions for Administration

Provided herein are methods of improving sinus microbiota (e.g.,increasing microbial diversity or reducing the relative population ofpathogenic species) in an individual comprising administering apharmaceutical composition comprising a beneficial microbe, e.g., fromTable X, to the individual. Typically, the composition is administerednasally, trans-nasally, or to the sinuses, e.g., using an aerosol,spray, irrigation, or nasal drops. Such methods can be used to treat anindividual diagnosed with sinusitis.

A pharmaceutical composition comprising a beneficial microbe describedherein can be administered, alone or in combination with other suitablecomponents, using an aerosol formulations (“nebulized”) to beadministered via inhalation. Aerosol formulations can be placed intopressurized acceptable propellants, such as dichlorodifluoromethane,propane, nitrogen, etc.

Compositions for administration typically comprises at least oneprobiotic microbe, e.g., as identified in Table X, in a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier, e.g., an aqueous carrier. A variety of aqueouscarriers can be used, e.g., buffered saline. These solutions aregenerally free of undesirable matter, e.g., contaminating species. Thecompositions can contain pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliarysubstances as required to approximate physiological conditions such aspH adjusting and buffering agents, for example, sodium acetate, sodiumchloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium lactate, etc. Theconcentration of active agent in these formulations can vary widely, andwill be selected primarily based on fluid volumes, viscosities, bodyweight and the like in accordance with the particular mode ofadministration selected and the patient's needs.

The formulation may also provide additional active compounds, including,e.g., antibiotic or anti-inflammatory agents. Combination therapiescontemplate coadministration, using separate formulations or a singlepharmaceutical formulation, and consecutive administration in eitherorder.

The active ingredients can be prepared as sustained-release preparations(e.g., semi-permeable matrices of solid hydrophobic polymers (e.g.,polyesters, hydrogels (for example, poly(2-hydroxyethyl-methacrylate),or poly(vinylalcohol)), polylactides. The probiotic formulationsdescribed herein can also be entrapped in microcapsules prepared, forexample, by coacervation techniques or by interfacial polymerization,for example, hydroxymethylcellulose or gelatin microcapsules andpoly-(methylmethacylate) microcapsules, respectively, in colloidal drugdelivery systems (for example, liposomes, albumin microspheres,microemulsions, nano-particles and nanocapsules) or in macroemulsions.

Methods for preparing therapeutic compositions will be known to thoseskilled in the art and are described in more detail in such publicationsas Remington's Pharmaceutical Science, 15th ed., Mack PublishingCompany, Easton, Pa. (1980).

The compositions can be administered for therapeutic or prophylactictreatments. In therapeutic applications, compositions are administeredto a patient suffering from a disease (e.g., sinusitis) in an effectivedose. Amounts effective for this use will depend upon the route ofadministration, the severity of the condition, and the general state ofthe patient's health. Single or multiple administrations of thecompositions may be administered depending on the dosage and frequencyas required and tolerated by the patient. The presently describedcompositions can be administered to humans and other animals. Thus themethods are applicable to both human therapy and veterinaryapplications.

To determine a therapeutically effective dose, e.g. a colonizing dose ofa probiotic composition, a relatively low dose of the composition can beinitially administered to the individual, and the dose can beincrementally increased until the condition of the individual, e.g., thesinus environment, begins to improve (e.g., reduced mucin secretion orgoblet cell hyperplasia, or increased microbial diversity). In somecases, however, the initial dose is relatively high to establish acolonizing population in a patient experiencing acute symptoms. One ofskill will appreciate that a number of variables must be considered whendetermining a therapeutically effective dose. The dose administered to apatient should be sufficient to effect a beneficial therapeutic responsein the patient over time. The size of the dose also will be determinedby the existence, nature, and extent of any adverse side-effects thataccompany the administration of a particular composition (or combinationtherapy) in a particular patient.

V. Kits

Further provided are kits for detecting at least one sinusitisassociated bacterial taxa (i.e., bacteria with high levels correlatingwith sinusitis, or bacteria are associated with the absence ofsinusitis, such as the bacteria in Table X). The kit can optionallyinclude written instructions, reference to an internet site, orelectronic instructions (e.g., on a CD-ROM or DVD). In some embodiments,kits of the invention will include a case or container for holding thereagents in the kit, which can be included separately or in combination.In some embodiments, the kit includes brushes, swabs, or other samplegathering devices for obtaining a sinonasal sample from an individual,e.g., from the maxillary, ethmoid, frontal, and/or sphenoid sinus. Thekit can further comprise sample containers for holding and processingsamples, and for detection of sinonasal microbes in the sample.

In some embodiments, the kit includes an array, the array comprisingprobes or other agents capable of specific detection of at least onesinusitis associated bacterial taxa. For example, the array can compriseprobes that specifically hybridize to nucleotide sequences from the atleast one sinusitis associated bacteria, e.g., polynucleotide oroligonucleotide probes. In some embodiments, the array comprisescomponents (e.g., antibody fragments) that specifically detectnon-nucleic acid markers from the at least one sinusitis associatedbacteria. In some embodiments, the array can specifically detect atleast 4, 5, 10, 12, 15, 20, 50, 80, 100, or all of the sinusitisassociated bacteria, e.g., Corynebacteria or those listed in Table X. Insome embodiments, the kit further includes reagents (buffers, secondarydetection agents, etc.) required for running the detection reaction.

In some embodiments, the kit will include PCR reagents and primers fordetecting at least one of the bacteria disclosed in Table X, or at leastone Corynebacterial species. The kit can thus include a polymerase,nucleotide monomers, buffer stocks, and optionally an interchalatingfluorescent dye. In some embodiments, the kit can include PCR primersfor at least 4, 5, 10, 12, 15, 20, 50, 60, or all of the sinusitisassociated bacteria, e.g., Corynebacteria or those listed in Table X.

In some embodiments, the kit can include PCR primers for detecting apolynucleotide from at least one sinusitis associated bacteria, e.g.,Corynebacteria (e.g., tuberculostearicum or segmentosum), or at leastone bacteria listed in Table X. The primers can be designed to amplifymore than one species or strain from a bacterial taxa, e.g., more thanone Corynebacteria or Lactobacillus strain.

In some embodiments, the kit will include a positive control for the atleast one sinusitis associated bacteria (e.g., an isolated sample of thebacteria). In some embodiments, the kit will include a negative controlfor the at least one sinusitis associated bacteria (e.g., a blank, or anunrelated bacterial sample).

It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein arefor illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changesin light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and areto be included within the spirit and purview of this application andscope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, patentapplications, Accession or ID numbers, and websites cited herein arehereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

VI. Examples A. Materials and Methods

Patient Sample Collection.

Patient and disease stratification was performed based on recentclinical history, nasal endoscopy, CT sinus review, and a validatedquality-of-life instrument, the disease-specific Sinonasal Outcome Testsurvey [SNOT-20; (38)]. Sinus brushings were obtained during functionalendoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) of CRS patients, or surgery for non-CRScomplaints, e.g., obstructive sleep apnea or post-traumaticmalocclusion, in healthy subjects. Endoscopically-guided brush samplesof mucosal surfaces of the lateral, central, and medial portions of themaxillary sinus were obtained and pooled together in 1 ml of RNALaterfor analysis. Samples were placed at 4° C. for 24 hours prior to storageat −80° C. until processed.

DNA Extraction and PhyloChip Analysis.

Mucosal brushings were transferred to Lysis Matrix B (MP Biomedicals,OH) tubes containing 600 ul RLT buffer (Qiagen, CA). Samples weresubjected to 30 seconds of bead beating at 5.5 m/second followed bycentrifugation for one minute at 2000 rpm. Supernatant was transferredto the AllPrepDNA spin column and nucleic acid purification (DNA andRNA) was carried out according to the manufacturer's instructions(Qiagen, CA). Nucleic acid concentrations were determined using aNanoDrop spectophotometer (Thermo Scientific, DE). PhyloChip analysiswas performed as previously described (40) using 250 ng of purifiedpooled 16S rRNA amplicon per sample generated using 27F and 1492Runiversal primers (41). Data sets were conservatively filtered aspreviously described (40). Probe-set fluorescence intensity wasnormalized and log transformed prior to analysis using packages in the Rstatistical environment. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) wasperformed on a Bray-Curtis dissimilarity matrix generated from PhyloChipfluorescence intensity data using the vegan package as we havepreviously described (22), followed by average linkage clustering.

A two-tailed Welch's T-test was used to identify taxa that weresignificantly altered in relative abundance across healthy subject andpatient groups and adjusted for false discovery (42) using the q-valuepackage as previously described at the website accessible atcran.r-project.org/web/packages/qvalue/qvalue.pdf. Results with ap-value <0.05 and q-value <0.05, were considered statisticallysignificant. The 16S rRNA sequences of significant taxa were used toconstruct a neighbor-joining with nearest-neighbor interchange treeusing FastTree (43) which was annotated using the Interactive Tree ofLife website accessible at itol.embl.de (44).

Murine sinus studies. Female 4-5 week old C57BL6/J mice weighing 16 to18 g were purchased form Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor, Me.) andhoused in micro-isolator cages. Animals were permitted to acclimatizefor two weeks with food and water ad libitum prior to study. Mice wereadministered augmentin (amoxicillin/clavulanate) at 100 mg/kg dosageonce a day for five days prior to bacterial instillation. Prior tointra-nasal C. tuberculostearicum, L. sakei, or combination of both C.tuberculostericum and L. sakei, inoculations mice were anesthetized byintraperitoneal injection with avertin (250 mg/kg). Inoculation wasperformed once a day for three days by applying 25 μl of either C.tuberculstearicum suspension (1.0×10¹¹ cfu/ml) or L. sakei (1.0×10¹¹cfu/ml) suspension, or combination of both microbes in equal ratios(total 2.0×10¹¹ cfu/ml), in PBS onto the external nares and inhalationby the animals (see e.g., 45, 46). Mice were monitored for breathingduring the entire inoculation process and post inoculation until fullyrecovered from anesthesia. Twenty-four hours after the final bacterialinoculation, mice were euthanized by CO₂ asphyxiation followed byinduced pneumothorax. The heads were decapitated and sinuses dissectedfor histological (n=2 animals per treatment group) and molecularanalysis (n=3 animals per treatment group). Dissected sinuses used formolecular analyses were placed in RNAlater (Ambion, TX) and stored at 4°C. until processed the following day in the same manner as describedabove for human samples.

Sinus Histology.

Sinuses used for histological analysis were fixed overnight in 4%paraformaldehye, followed by overnight decalcification in Decalcifyingsolution A (Fisher, CA). Samples were then dehydrated as follows: rinsedwith PBS (1 hour), soaked in 30% ethanol (1 hour), 50% ethanol (1 hour),then transferred to 70% ethanol and stored at 4° C. until subsequentpreparation. Sinus samples were sectioned to 5 μm thickness and mountedonto glass microscope slides. H&E and PAS staining were performed aspreviously described (47). PAS-stained sections prepared from fourgroups of mice (CT−AB−, CT−AB+, CT+AB− and CT+AB−) were imaged at 20×and 60× magnifications, and PAS-positive cells were counted for 3different sections per mice (2 mice in each group). The number of gobletcells was expressed as the total number of PAS-positive cells per μmlength of epithelium. Students t-test was used to calculate p-values,p<0.05 was considered significant.

Q-PCR.

Bacterial burden was determined using extracted DNA (10 ng per sample,triplicate reactions) and universal 16S rRNA Q-PCR primers [338F,5′-ACTCCTACGGGAGG CAGCAG-3′ (41) and 518R 5′-ATTACCGCGGCTGCTGG-3′(48)].Quantitec SYBR Green (Qiagen, CA) was used according to manufacturer'sinstructions. Reaction mixtures (25 μl total) contained 12.5 μL of 2×QuantiTec SYBR green (Qiagen, CA), 2.5 μl each of 3 μM forward andreverse primer, and 6.5 μl H₂O. Reactions were amplified using theMx3000P Real-Time PCR System (Stratagene, CA) and the following cyclingconditions: 95° C. for 10 min followed by 40 cycles of 95° C. for 30sec, 55° C. for 1 min and 72° C. for 30 sec. The data acquisition stepwas set at 55° C. Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum abundance wasdetermined by Q-PCR using a pair of primers designed in this study:CT-F: 5′-GAACGGAAAGGCCCTGCTTGCA-3′ and CT-R 5′-GGCTCCTATCCGGTATTAGACC-3′; Lactobacillus sakei abundance was determined using the primerpair: LS-F: 5′-GGTAAAGGCTCACCAAGACCGTGAT-3′ and LS-R:5′TCACGCGGCGTTGCTCCATC-3′. Reaction mixtures (25 μl total) contained 10ng of total DNA, 12.5 μl of 2× QuantiTec SYBR green (Qiagen, CA), 2.5 μlof each primer and 6.5 μl of H₂O. Reactions were amplified on theMx3000P Real-Time PCR System (Stratagene, CA) under the following steps:95° C. for 10 min followed by 40 cycles of 95° C. for 30 sec, 55° C. for1 min and 72° C. for 30 sec. The data acquisition step was set at 55° C.

For Muc5A expression analysis, confirmed DNA-free total RNA (1 μg) wasreverse transcribed at 42° C. for 50 min in a 20 μl reaction mixture(0.025 μg/μl oligo-dT, 0.5 mMdNTPs, 5 μl First Strand buffer, 5 mMMgCl2, 0.01 M DTT, and RNAse Out) using 1 μl Superscript II (Invitrogen,CA). cDNA was diluted 1:5 in molecular grade water. Reactions wereperformed in 96 well plates in a 25 μl final volume containing 12.5 μlof SYBR Green PCR master mix (Qiagen, CA), 2.5 μl of each forward andreverse primer (final concentration 10 μM per primer; Muc5AF5′-TGTGGCGGGAAAGACAGC-3′ Muc5AR 5′-CCTTCCTATGGCTTAGCTTCAGC-3′; β-actinF5′-CACCACACCTTCTAC AATGAGC TGC-3′ and β-actinR5′-ACACCCTGGATAGCAACGTACATGC-3′), 4 μl of diluted cDNA, and 6 μl ofmolecular grade water. Reactions were amplified on a Mx3000P Real-TimePCR System under the following conditions: 94° C. for 10 min followed by40 cycles of 94° C. for 30 sec, 58° C. for 1 min and 72° C. for 30 sec.Students t-test was used to calculate p-values for individual treatmentgroups, p<0.05 was considered significant.

B. Example 1 Comparative Sinus Microbiota Analysis

Maxillary sinus samples from 20 subjects (10 CRS and 10 healthyindividuals) were used for this study. Patient details are provided inTable 1. Mucin hyper-secretion is a hallmark of sinus disease (12, 13).Therefore, to confirm that the CRS patients exhibited a phenotypeconsistent with disease, Q-PCR analysis of Muc5A gene (encoding mucinprimarily secreted from surface epithelium goblet cells in humans (14,15)) expression was performed. Muc5A was significantly up-regulated inCRS patients compared to healthy control subjects (FIG. 1), thusvalidating the presence of sinus disease in our CRS cohort. Q-PCRanalysis of bacterial burden by total 16S rRNA copy number demonstratedthat peri-operative CRS patients and healthy subjects exhibited nosignificant difference in sinus bacterial burden (2.19×10⁶±1.09×10⁶ vs2.86×10⁶±2.34×10⁶ copies of 16S rRNA gene per μg of total DNA in CRS andhealthy control subjects respectively; p≦0.53). The result indicatesthat the sinus niche can support a defined bacterial load, and thatmicrobiota composition and relative taxonomic distribution, rather thanabsolute number of bacteria present, are related to disease state.

TABLE 1 Patient information. Antimicrobial treatment Group Study IDGender Age SNOT-20 Pre-operative Peri-operative CRS CRS-001^(a) M 542.75 None^(b) Cefazolin CRS CRS-002 M 54 2.35 TMP/SMX^(c) Vancomycin CRSCRS-003^(a) M 48 2.65 None AMP/SUL^(d) CRS CRS-004 M 33 3.60 NoneCefazolin CRS CRS-005^(a) M 56 2.65 Clarithromycin Cefazolin CRS CRS-006F 41 1.85 None Cefazolin CRS CRS-007 M 60 3.00 ClarithromycinLevofloxacin CRS CRS-008 M 53 1.55 Ciprofloxacin Cefazolin CRS CRS-009 F46 2.35 AMO/CLU^(e) Cefazolin Control CRS-010 M 62 0.90 LevofloxacinCentriaxone CRS CRS-011 M 42 3.35 AMO/CLU Clindamycin ControlCRS-012^(a) M 43 0.15 None Clindamycin Control CRS-013 F 73 1.70 NoneCefazolin Control CRS-014 M 41 2.60 None Clindamycin Control CRS-015^(a)M 39 0.00 None Clindamycin Control CRS-016^(a) F 37 2.25 None CefazolinControl CRS-017 F 46 0.10 None Clindamycin Control CRS-018 M 46 2.15None Clindamycin Control CRS-019 F 31 0.50 None Clindamycin ControlCRS-020 F 18 0.30 None Clindamycin ^(a)Microbiota profiling was notpreformed for these subject samples due to insufficient 16SrRNAamplicon; ^(b)None, no antibiotics administered; ^(c)TMP/SMX,Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole; ^(d)AMP/SUL, Ampicillin/Sulbactam;^(e)AMO/CLU, Amoxicillin/clavulanate.

A standardized phylogenetic microarray, the 16S rRNAPhyloChip was usedto profile the presence and relative abundance of approximately 8,500bacterial taxa, representing broad membership of all known bacterialphyla (Hugenholtz phylogenetic classification). This approach was usedin favor of more traditional sequencing approaches to maximize the depthof community coverage. Low abundance microbiome members can contributeconsiderably to microbiome function (16) and act as keystone speciesthat shape microbial community composition (17). Using this tool, weprofiled bacterial communities present in 14 subjects (7 healthy, 7 CRS)with sufficient amplified 16S rRNA product to be analyzed. Comparativeanalyses of gross bacterial community metrics between the CRS andhealthy groups demonstrated that compared to healthy individuals, CRSpatients exhibited substantial microbiota perturbation, characterized bysignificantly reduced bacterial richness (p≦0.005; number of bacterialtypes detected; FIG. 2A), evenness (p≦0.04; relative distribution ofbacterial types; FIG. 2B) and diversity (p≦0.01; metric calculated usingrichness and evenness indices; FIG. 2C).

Reduced diversity was further demonstrated by hierarchical clusteranalysis which revealed that the majority of healthy subjects clusteredin a single tightly-knit group, with bacterial communitiescompositionally distinct from CRS patients who clustered into twodistinct groups (FIG. 2D). Healthy subject CRS 14, clustered with CRSpatients, and it was subsequently determined that this individual hadhistorically suffered from chronic nasal allergies. The present analysisthus confirms that the sinus microbiota composition of healthy subjectsis distinct from that of CRS patients and, that within the CRSpopulation, discrete sub-groups with distinct microbial communityprofiles exist.

Antibiotic use was examined, as it influences microbiota composition.All study subjects (CRS and healthy) received prophylactic antibioticsimmediately (1 hour) prior to surgery and sample collection according tostandard practice. Long-term pre-operative antibiotic use was absent forthe majority of healthy subjects, and variable in the CRS patient group(Table 1). Patients with disparate long-term antimicrobialadministration histories (e.g. CRS 4, 6 and 2; Group II; Table 1)clustered closely together. Moreover, Group II included two patients whohad not received long-term antibiotics, and who exhibited significantlylower (p<0.006) sinus community diversity compared to microbiota frompatients in Group I. Group I subjects had received long-termprophylactic antibiotic administration, indicating that while antibiotictherapy may contribute, it is not the sole selective pressure definingbacterial community composition and loss of diversity in this niche.

C. Example 2 Taxa Characteristic of Healthy and CRS Sinuses

Results from the Sino-Nasal Outcomes Test (SNOT-20) questionnaire, ametric to score sinus symptomology, confirmed that CRS patients reportedsignificantly higher scores (i.e., more severe sinus symptomology(p≦0.003)) than healthy controls. The observed microbiota clusteringpatterns were consistent with patient-reported sinus symptomology, asshown in FIG. 2D). Given this level of independent validation of diseaseactivity, specific community members that differentiated healthysubjects and CRS patients were next characterized at the taxonomiclevel.

Known pathogenic members of the Pseudomonadaceae, Lachnospiraceae,Ralstoniaceae, Mycobacteriaceae and Helicobacteriaceae were detected inboth CRS patients with, and healthy subjects without, sinonasalsymptoms. Thus, the mere detection of a suspected or known pathogen in agiven niche does not necessarily imply pathogenic activity, indicatingthat the microbiota composition at a given site may play a large role indefining the activity of community members.

Following correction for false discovery (p−0.05, q≦0.05), a total of1,482 taxa were detected in significantly lower relative abundance inCRS patient sinuses, underscoring the extent of sinus microbiotacollapse in the CRS patient population. A large number of taxaexhibiting the most significant reductions in relative abundance in theCRS patients belonged to the order Lactobacillales and includedprobiotic species such as Lactobacillus sakei, as well as otherphylogenetically distinct lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such asCarnobacterium alterfunditum, Enterococcus mundtii and Pediococcuspentosaceus implicating LAB in maintenance of healthy sinus mucosa. Instark comparison, only Corynebacteria, in particular, Corynebacteriumtuberculostearicum, (Taxon ID 1493, str. CIP102346) exhibited asignificant increase in abundance in CRS patients (Correlation value:0.6220027; p≦0.03, q≦0.003). Corynebacterium segmentosum (Taxon ID 1192,str. CIP107068 (CCUG37878)) was also correlated with CRS (Correlationvalue: 0.5514262; p≦0.05).

The microbiota data were examined to identify those species thatcorrelated with SNOT-20 symptom severity scores, in order to furtherconfirm the clinical significance of these findings. A large group of228 taxa were significantly (p<0.05) correlated with lower SNOT-20scores (indicative of healthy sinuses; FIG. 3; Table X). Amongst thesetaxa were members of the LAB, e.g., Lactobacilliaceae, Enterococcaceae,Aerococcaceae, and Streptococcaceae, further supporting the idea thatthese families are protective in healthy sinuses.

As noted above, the relative abundance of only two bacterial species waspositively correlated with increased symptom severity; both belonged tothe Corynebacteriaceae, with C. tuberculostearicum most correlated withsymptom severity (r=0.62; p≦0.02). Q-PCR analysis was performed usingprimers designed to specifically amplify C. tuberculostearicum tovalidate these findings. Linear regression of C. tuberculostearicumQ-PCR-derived copy number against both array-reported fluorescenceintensity or against SNOT-20 score demonstrated concordance (r=0.66;p≦0.01 and r=0.68; p≦0.01 respectively). The regression data thuscorroborate the array-based findings and confirm a strong relationshipbetween the abundance of this species and sinus symptom severity (FIG.4).

D. Example 3 Murine Model of Sinusitis

To determine whether C. tuberculostearicum, which is typicallyconsidered a skin commensal, exhibited any pathogenic potential, amurine model of sinus infection was developed. Goblet cell hyperplasiaand mucin hypersecretion were used as indicators of pathology (12), andas the outcome measures to define pathogenic activity in the sinuses.This model is also allows for determination of whether C.tuberculostearicum is influenced by resident microbiota in the sinuscavity.

Four groups of mice (n=5 animals per group) representing: i. Untreatedcontrol; ii. Antibiotic treated (to elicit microbiome depletion); iii.C. tuberculostearicum (ATCC #35694) inoculated; and iv. Antibiotictreated and C. tuberculostearicum inoculated animals were used (FIG. 5).Q-PCR analyses of total 16S rRNA copy number from the sinuses of theseanimals confirmed that the burden of bacteria in the antibiotic treatedgroups was significantly lower (p>0.03) than that of untreated animals.The data confirm acute antimicrobial depletion of bacterial burden andmucosal sinus microbiota diversity in antibiotic-treated groups.Histological examination of the sinus mucosa from each groupdemonstrated that the untreated control and antibiotic treated animalsdid not exhibit aberrant epithelial physiology (FIG. 6Ai and ii), whileinstillation of C. tuberculostearicum in the presence of a replete sinusmicrobiota elicited a modest increase in the number of mucin-secretinggoblet cells (FIG. 6Aiii).

Animals treated with both antimicrobial and C. tuberculostearicumexhibited profound goblet cell hyperplasia, (FIG. 6Aiv; FIG. 6B andTable 2), significantly greater than that observed in any other group.Since mucin hypersecretion is a hallmark of respiratory infection (18)and chronic sinusitis (12, 13), these data confirm that C.tuberculostearicum is capable of inducing a characteristic response topathogenic microbes and that this response is significantly augmentedunder conditions of depleted sinus microbiota.

TABLE 2 p-values for goblet cell number per μm of epithelial cellsurface compared across mouse treatment groups (FIG. 6). AB− CT− AB+ CT−AB− CT+ AB+ CT+ AB− CT− — 0.36 0.011  0.0034 AB+ CT− — — 0.0012 0.0001AB− CT+ — — — 0.0076 AB+ CT+ — — — —

The above experiment was repeated, with inclusion of an additional grouptreated with antibiotics prior to instillation of L. sakei (ATCC 15521)(FIG. 5), to demonstrate that goblet cell hyperplasia and mucinhypersecretion were induced specifically by C. tuberculostearicum. Theconditions were designed to confirm that the characteristic pathogenicresponse did not simply represent a host response to instillation of anybacterial species into the sinus niche. L. sakei was selected becausethis species was present in high abundance in healthy mucosal samples,and was the most significantly depleted taxon in CRS patients. Theseresults indicated that L. sakei is a protective sinus mucosal colonizer,and likely would not induce a pathogenic response.

Q-PCR was performed on all treatment groups to confirm that animalsreceiving bacterial inocula exhibited the presence of these species(FIG. 7). Histological imaging of the maxillary sinuses (FIG. 8A)demonstrated again that the antibiotic-treated and C. tuberculostearicuminoculated group exhibited significant increases in goblet cellhyperplasia and mucin hypersecretion (FIG. 8Aiii). Mice receivingidentical numbers of L. sakei, however, demonstrated epithelialphysiology comparable to that of control animals (no significantdifferences in goblet cell numbers; Table 3; FIG. 8Aiv). That L. sakeiinoculated animals did not display the pathogenic response indicatedthat it was specifically due to C. tuberculostearium. Enumeration ofgoblet cell numbers in each treatment group confirmed these observations(FIG. 8B; Table 3).

The collective data indicate that L. sakei is protective in the sinusmucosa. We next investigated whether co-instillation of L. sakei with C.tuberculostearicum could abrogate the goblet cell hyperplasia and mucinhypersecretion phenotype induced by C. tuberculostearicum, even in thecontext of a depleted native microbiota. Following treatment withantibiotics, equal numbers of both species were instilled into thesinuses of mice. Histological examination revealed sinus epitheliacomparable to that of animals in the control groups (FIG. 8Av), with nosignificant differences in goblet cell numbers observed across thesegroups (FIG. 8B and Table 3). Q-PCR analyses demonstrated significantly(p<0.02) reduced C. tuberculostearicum abundance in the co-instilledanimals compared to animals infected with C. tuberculostearicum alone(FIG. 7). L. sakei numbers in these animals were, however, similar tothose in animals treated with L. sakei alone (FIG. 8). The data indicatethat L. sakei protects the sinus epithelium, putatively throughcompetitive inhibition of C. tuberculostearicum. L. sakei thusrepresents a novel, probiotic therapy for amelioration or prevention ofsinus pathology, even in patients with severe sinus microbiomedepletion.

TABLE 3 Significance values for comparative goblet cell number per μm ofepithelial cell surface across mouse treatment groups (FIG. 8). AB+ AB+CT+ AB− CT− AB+ CT− LS+ AB+ CT+ LS+ AB− CT− — 1 0.2002 0.0099 0.2082 AB+CT− — — 0.2002 0.0099 0.2082 AB+ LS+ — — — 0.0118 0.5717 AB+ CT+ — — — —0.0141 AB+ CT+ LS+ — — — — —

TABLE X Bacterial species negatively correlated with sinus symptomseverity Phylum Family Taxon prokMSA Name Estimate P value Q valueFirmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3547 Lactobacillus frumenti str. −0.53245160.04998019 0.035270589 TMW 1.666 Proteobacteria Helicobacteraceae 10520Helicobacter sp. blood −0.5325229 0.04994373 0.035270589 isolate 964Proteobacteria Campylobacteraceae 10538 Arcobacter cryaerophilus−0.5332394 0.04957863 0.035270589 Unclassified Unclassified 243 hotspring clone OPB25 −0.5332699 0.04956314 0.035270589 ProteobacteriaNitrospinaceae 594 uranium mining mill tailing −0.5334925 0.049450170.035270589 clone GR-296.II.52 GR- 296.I.52 FirmicutesAcholeplasmataceae 3977 Chinaberry yellows −0.53364 0.049375360.035270589 phytoplasma str. CbY1 Bacteroidetes Porphyromonadaceae 5429−0.5336558 0.04936737 0.035270589 Cyanobacteria Chloroplasts 5040Solanum nigrum −0.5336963 0.04934686 0.035270589 ProteobacteriaBradyrhizobiaceae 7390 Afipia genosp. 10 str. G8996 −0.53369710.04934647 0.035270589 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 2994 termite gut cloneRs-L15 −0.533732 0.04932878 0.035270589 Synergistes Unclassified 117termite gut homogenate −0.5342366 0.04907378 0.035270589 clone Rs-D89Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5401 Capnocytophaga gingivalis−0.5343746 0.04900422 0.035270589 str. ChDC OS45 ProteobacteriaDesulfobacteraceae 10046 Desulfobacterium cetonicum −0.53437910.04900192 0.035270589 str. DSM 7267 oil recovery water VerrucomicrobiaVerrucomicrobiaceae 613 hydrothermal vent −0.5344217 0.048980490.035270589 polychaete mucous clone P. palm C 85 ProteobacteriaUnclassified 10427 hydrothermal vent 9 degrees −0.5344767 0.048952790.035270589 North East Rise Pacific Ocean cloneCH3_17_BAC_16SrRNA_9N_EPR Actinobacteria Micrococcaceae 1686 Yaniahalotolerans str. YIM −0.5345007 0.04894071 0.035270589 70085Unclassified Unclassified 4410 −0.5345541 0.04891381 0.035270589Cyanobacteria Unclassified 5010 LPP-group cyanobacterium −0.53461430.04888353 0.035270589 isolate str. QSSC5cya QSSC5cya AcidobacteriaUnclassified 6357 anaerobic benzene-degrading −0.5346545 0.048863310.035270589 clone Cart-N4 Proteobacteria Unclassified 8961 Calyptogenamagnifica −0.5349561 0.04871181 0.035270589 symbiont FirmicutesAcholeplasmataceae 3945 Ash witches'-broom −0.5352908 0.048544130.035270589 phytoplasma str. AshWB Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 2693ruminantium str. GA195 −0.5353908 0.04849409 0.035270589 FirmicutesPeptococc/ 865 Selenomonas sputigena str. −0.5354898 0.048444620.035270589 Acidaminococc ATCC 35185 Firmicutes Paenibacillaceae 3641Brevibacillus sp. MN 47.2a −0.5355341 0.04842245 0.035270589Planctomycetes Planctomycetaceae 4855 aerobic basin clone −0.53606020.0481602 0.035270589 CY0ARA026D10 Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3696Lactobacillus kalixensis str. −0.536599 0.04789264 0.035270589 Kx127A2;LMG 22115T; DSM 16043T; CCUG 48459T Proteobacteria Unclassified 10259−0.5369322 0.04772772 0.035270589 Firmicutes Unclassified 2541 UASBgranular sludge clone −0.5369672 0.04771044 0.035270589 FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 2681 UT-2 −0.5370585 0.04766533 0.035270589 termite guthomogenate clone Rs-K41 bacterium Proteobacteria Bradyrhizobiaceae 7126ground water deep-well −0.5371332 0.04762847 0.035270589 injectiondisposal site radioactive wastes Tomsk-7 clone S15A-MN96 proteobacteriumFirmicutes Syntrophomonadaceae 2483 trichloroethene-contaminated−0.5376491 0.04737434 0.035270589 site clone FTLM142 bacteriumFirmicutes Peptococc/ 131 pig feces clone −0.5377144 0.047342260.035270589 Acidaminococc Proteobacteria Unclassified 8587 Mars OdysseyOrbiter and −0.5377735 0.04731322 0.035270589 encapsulation facilityclone T5-3 Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5906 Capnocytophaga sputigena−0.5378696 0.04726602 0.035270589 str. ATCC 33612 BacteroidetesFlavobacteriaceae 5933 Flavobacterium columnare −0.5378938 0.047254150.035270589 str. PH-97028 (IAM 14821) Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 2965oral endodontic infection −0.5381045 0.04715086 0.035270589 cloneMCE9_173 Actinobacteria Micrococcaceae 1494 Arthrobacter agilis str. DSM−0.5383154 0.04704757 0.035270589 20550 BRC1 Unclassified 5143 soilclone PBS-II-1 −0.5383959 0.04700824 0.035270589 FirmicutesEnterococcaceae 3298 Enterococcus saccharolyticus −0.5391099 0.046660120.035270589 str. LMG 11427 Cyanobacteria Unclassified 5038 Rumen isolatestr. YS2 −0.5392866 0.04657427 0.035270589 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae4335 termite gut homogenate −0.5392971 0.04656915 0.035270589 cloneRs-N86 bacterium Firmicutes Aerococcaceae 3504 Marinilactibacillus−0.5397087 0.04636966 0.035270589 psychrotolerans str. O21 BacteroidetesUnclassified 5257 marine? clone KD3-67 −0.5398265 0.04631263 0.035270589Firmicutes Peptococc/ 534 chlorobenzene-degrading −0.5401839 0.046140080.035270589 Acidaminococc consortium clone IIA-26 SpirochaetesSpirochaetaceae 6526 Treponema sp. str. 7CPL208 −0.5402284 0.04611860.035270589 Actinobacteria Micrococcaceae 1573 Arthrobacter nicotianaestr. −0.5405694 0.04595441 0.035270589 SB42 ProteobacteriaDesulfoarculaceae 10227 marine sediment clone Bol11 −0.54096710.04576348 0.035270589 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4278 granular sludgeclone R1p16 −0.5409777 0.04575841 0.035270589 ProteobacteriaUnclassified 7060 −0.5410353 0.0457308 0.035270589 BacteroidetesUnclassified 5785 Mono Lake at depth 35 m −0.5413643 0.045573360.035270589 station 6 Jul. 2000 clone ML635J-56 FirmicutesStreptococcaceae 3499 Streptococcus constellatus −0.5416222 0.045450220.035270589 str. ATCC27823 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4177 Clostridiumsubterminale −0.5419209 0.04530792 0.035270589 DSM 2636 BacteroidetesRikenellaceae 5889 termite gut homogenate −0.5420021 0.04526930.035270589 clone Rs-F73 bacterium Proteobacteria Bdellovibrionaceae10010 uranium mining waste pile −0.5422324 0.04515985 0.035270589 cloneJG37-AG-139 proteobacterium Firmicutes Peptococc/ 392 oral endodonticinfection −0.5424949 0.04503537 0.035270589 Acidaminococc clone MCE7_134Bacteroidetes Sphingobacteriaceae 5513 crevicular epithelial cells−0.5425299 0.04501877 0.035270589 clone AZ123 FirmicutesMycoplasmataceae 3929 Mycoplasma −0.5427064 0.04493525 0.035270589gypsbengalensis str. Gb-V33 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4300 termite gutclone Rs-060 −0.5428522 0.04486631 0.035270589 ProteobacteriaCampylobacteraceae 10484 Campylobacter helveticus −0.5430959 0.044751260.035270589 OP10 Unclassified 514 sludge clone SBRA136 −0.54323950.04468356 0.035270589 Proteobacteria Syntrophobacteraceae 10221granular sludge clone R3p4 −0.5433823 0.04461634 0.035270589 FirmicutesLactobacillaceae 3330 Lactobacillus kitasatonis str. −0.54377280.04443286 0.035270589 KM9212 BRC1 Unclassified 118 penguin droppingssediments −0.5440147 0.04431948 0.035270589 clone KD1-1 FirmicutesPeptococc/ 39 forested wetland clone −0.5441698 0.04424689 0.035270589Acidaminococc RCP2-71 Proteobacteria Pasteurellaceae 9213 Haemophilusquentini str. −0.544316 0.04417854 0.035270589 MCCM 02026 FirmicutesStreptococcaceae 3629 Streptococcus mutans str. −0.5443712 0.044152770.035270589 UA96 Proteobacteria Unclassified 9760 deep marine sedimentclone −0.5450115 0.0438545 0.035270589 MB-A2-137 Firmicutes Unclassified926 −0.5457011 0.04353492 0.035270589 Firmicutes Staphylococcaceae 3524Gemella haemolysans −0.5458225 0.04347884 0.035270589 ProteobacteriaSyntrophobacteraceae 10021 uranium mill tailings soil −0.5460550.04337153 0.035270589 sample clone Sh765B-TzT- 29 proteobacteriumActinobacteria Micrococcaceae 1593 Arthrobacter globiformis −0.54625320.04328029 0.035270589 Proteobacteria Desulfobacteraceae 9875hydrothermal sediment clone −0.5463408 0.04323997 0.035270589 AF420354Cyanobacteria Chloroplasts 4966 Adiantum pedatum −0.5470294 0.042924150.035270589 Bacteroidetes Prevotellaceae 5893 tongue dorsa clone DO045−0.5471467 0.04287049 0.035270589 Firmicutes Peptococc/Acidaminococc 562oral endodontic infection −0.5472263 0.04283412 0.035270589 cloneMCE10_265 Chlorobi Unclassified 636 benzene-degrading nitrate-−0.5473972 0.04275611 0.035270589 reducing consortium clone Cart-N3bacterium Firmicutes Carnobacteriaceae 3536 −0.5475614 0.042681280.035270589 Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5473 −0.5478064 0.042569790.035270589 Proteobacteria Syntrophobacteraceae 9845 uranium miningwaste pile −0.5484553 0.0422755 0.035270589 clone JG37-AG-128proteobacterium Proteobacteria Campylobacteraceae 10540 Campylobactershowae str. −0.5489328 0.0420599 0.035270589 LMG 12636 ProteobacteriaSphingomonadaceae 7100 Novosphingobium −0.5490852 0.04199126 0.035270589capsulatum str. GIFU11526 Proteobacteria Bradyrhizobiaceae 6887Bradyrhizobium str. YB2 −0.5492974 0.04189579 0.035270589 ChloroflexiUnclassified 76 DCP-dechlorinating −0.5500398 0.04156317 0.035270589consortium clone SHA-147 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4265 termite guthomogenate −0.5500563 0.04155579 0.035270589 clone Rs-N70 bacteriumBacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5436 Arctic sea ice ARK10004 −0.55016460.04150741 0.035270589 Actinobacteria Unclassified 1898 termite guthomogenate −0.5503548 0.0414226 0.035270589 clone Rs-J10 bacteriumFirmicutes Aerococcaceae 3631 Abiotrophia defectiva str. −0.55045430.04137826 0.035270589 GIFU12707 (ATCC49176) Firmicutes Streptococcaceae3753 Streptococcus suis str. 8074 −0.5505636 0.04132961 0.035270589Bacteroidetes Flexibacteraceae 6124 Flexibacter flexilis subsp.−0.5507177 0.04126111 0.035270589 pelliculosus str. IFO 16028 subsp.Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3382 −0.5508457 0.04120423 0.035270589Firmicutes Leuconostocaceae 3573 Leuconostoc ficulneum str. −0.55115950.0410651 0.035270589 FS-1 Firmicutes Streptococcaceae 3422Streptococcus thermophilus −0.5511839 0.04105433 0.035270589 str. DSM20617 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 4315 termite gut homogenate −0.55120270.04104598 0.035270589 clone Rs-N94 bacterium Unclassified Unclassified7444 −0.5513268 0.04099107 0.035270589 Bacteroidetes Flexibacteraceae6261 Arctic sea ice cryoconite −0.5515557 0.04088996 0.035270589 cloneARKCRY-50 Planctomycetes Planctomycetaceae 4948 anoxic basin clone−0.5524994 0.0404749 0.035270589 CY0ARA027D01 FirmicutesStreptococcaceae 3253 derived cheese sample clone −0.5527952 0.040345460.035270589 32CR Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4614 Clostridium sp. str. JC3−0.5534251 0.04007081 0.035270589 Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5267bacterioplankton clone −0.5535169 0.04003091 0.035270589 AEGEAN_179Natronoanaerobium Unclassified 4377 Mono Lake at depth 35 m −0.55387730.03987448 0.035270589 station 6 Jul. 2000 clone ML635J-65 G + C OP9/JS1Unclassified 2489 Guaymas Basin −0.5543007 0.0396913 0.035270589hydrothermal vent sediments clone B01R005 Chloroflexi Unclassified 2534forest soil clone S085 −0.5543422 0.03967338 0.035270589 BacteroidetesUnclassified 5957 hydrothermal vent −0.5543543 0.03966819 0.035270589polychaete mucous clone P. palm C/A 20 Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3521Pediococcus inopinatus str. −0.555167 0.03931844 0.035270589 DSM 20285Firmicutes Unclassified 77 thermal soil clone YNPFFP9 −0.55528350.03926852 0.035270589 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4550 swine intestineclone p-320- −0.5558022 0.0390467 0.035270589 a3 FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 2668 termite gut homogenate −0.5558071 0.039044610.035270589 clone Rs-G40 bacterium Actinobacteria Micrococcaceae 1557Arthrobacter oxydans str. −0.5560342 0.03894779 0.035270589 DSM 20119Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4459 termite gut clone Rs-109 −0.55678230.03863011 0.035270589 Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5521Flavobacteriaceae str. −0.5568853 0.03858655 0.035270589 SW269Proteobacteria Campylobacteraceae 10397 groundwater clone 1006−0.5570026 0.03853694 0.035270589 Proteobacteria Unclassified 9876 deepmarine sediment clone −0.5570065 0.03853531 0.035270589 MB-B2-106Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 4514 termite gut homogenate −0.55706510.03851051 0.035270589 clone Rs-B34 bacterium ProteobacteriaPolyangiaceae 9733 bacterioplankton clone −0.5574153 0.038362810.035270589 ZA3735c Firmicutes Unclassified 522 UASB granular sludgeclone −0.5575107 0.03832264 0.035270589 UT-1 Firmicutes Streptococcaceae3722 Lactococcus Il1403 subsp. −0.5578807 0.03816718 0.035270589 lactisstr. IL1403 Firmicutes Peptococc/ 304 Selenomonas ruminantium −0.55807070.0380875 0.035270589 Acidaminococc str. JCM6582 FirmicutesLactobacillaceae 3885 Pediococcus pentosaceus −0.5582024 0.038032340.035270589 Proteobacteria Sphingomonadaceae 7440 Sphingobiumchungbukense −0.558408 0.03794637 0.035270589 str. DJ77 FirmicutesAerococcaceae 3326 Nostocoida limicola I str. −0.558438 0.037933840.035270589 Ben206 Bacteroidetes Flexibacteraceae 5602 −0.5586080.03786285 0.035270589 Proteobacteria Polyangiaceae 10298 marine tidalmat clone −0.5588222 0.03777357 0.035270589 BTM36 Firmicutes Bacillaceae3900 Bacillus licheniformis str. −0.5588343 0.03776853 0.035270589 DSM13 Bacteroidetes Rikenellaceae 5892 anoxic bulk soil flooded rice−0.559133 0.03764434 0.035270589 microcosm clone BSV73 ProteobacteriaPasteurellaceae 8195 Haemophilus influenzae str. −0.5591662 0.037630530.035270589 R2866 Chlorobi Chlorobiaceae 859 Chlorobium phaeovibrioides−0.5598611 0.03734276 0.035270589 str. 2631 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae4477 termite gut homogenate −0.5599449 0.03730819 0.035270589 cloneRs-N85 bacterium Proteobacteria Unclassified 244 deep marine sedimentclone −0.5600791 0.03725282 0.035270589 MB-C2-152 BacteroidetesFlavobacteriaceae 6248 Capnocytophaga sp. oral −0.56046 0.037096070.035270589 strain str. S3 Proteobacteria Unclassified 10084 acid minedrainage clone −0.5606514 0.03701749 0.035270589 AS6 FirmicutesStreptococcaceae 3588 Streptococcus downei str. −0.5606556 0.037015760.035270589 ATCC 33748 Firmicutes Peptococc/ 1036 Great Artesian Basinclone −0.560657 0.0370152 0.035270589 Acidaminococc G07 ChloroflexiUnclassified 2397 deep marine sediment clone −0.561111 0.03682930.035270589 MB-C2-I27 Actinobacteria Micrococcaceae 2020 Rothiadentocariosa str. −0.5612027 0.03679183 0.035270589 ChDC B200Bacteroidetes Unclassified 5353 trichloroethene-contaminated −0.5614550.03668889 0.035270589 site clone FTLpost3 bacterium BacteroidetesFlavobacteriaceae 5991 Tenacibaculum ovolyticum −0.5617321 0.036576050.035270589 str. IAM14318 Proteobacteria Sphingomonadaceae 7036Lutibacterium anuloederans −0.562055 0.03644492 0.035270589 str. LC8Cyanobacteria Chloroplasts 5147 Emiliania huxleyi str. −0.56206970.03643899 0.035270589 Plymouth Marine Laborator PML 92 ActinobacteriaAcidimicrobiaceae 1090 −0.5623333 0.03633219 0.035270589 ProteobacteriaUnclassified 9813 hydrothermal sediment clone −0.5624152 0.036299060.035270589 AF420340 Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3433 Tetragenococcusmuriaticus −0.5626691 0.03619651 0.035270589 FirmicutesAcholeplasmataceae 4044 −0.5626807 0.03619181 0.035270589 TM7Unclassified 8040 oral cavity clone BE109 −0.5630985 0.036023540.035270589 Bacteroidetes Porphyromonadaceae 5295 swine intestine clonep-987- −0.563282 0.03594978 0.035270589 s962-5 BacteroidetesFlavobacteriaceae 5914 Psychroserpens burtonensis −0.563714 0.035776670.035270589 str. S2-64 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 4613 rumen clone3C0d-3 −0.5638647 0.03571638 0.035270589 Firmicutes Acholeplasmataceae4046 Pigeon pea witches'-broom −0.56396 0.03567834 0.035270589mycoplasma-like organism Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 6269 acidicforest soil clone UC1 −0.5640842 0.03562876 0.035270589 OP9/JS1Unclassified 969 DCP-dechlorinating −0.5641236 0.03561305 0.035270589consortium clone SHA-1 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4180 termite guthomogenate −0.5642019 0.03558187 0.035270589 clone Rs-M23 bacteriumCyanobacteria Chloroplasts 4976 Calypogeia muelleriana −0.56422670.03557199 0.035270589 Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3261 Enterococcusmundtii str. −0.5647034 0.03538246 0.035270589 LMG 10748 ActinobacteriaMicrococcaceae 1324 glacial ice isolate str. −0.5655964 0.035029390.035270589 CanDirty1 Firmicutes Peptococc/ 761 Anaeroglobus geminatusstr. −0.5657127 0.0349836 0.035270589 Acidaminococc AIP313.00; CIP106856; CCUG 44773 Bacteroidetes Unclassified 5475 SHA-25 clone−0.5660295 0.03485913 0.035270589 Planctomycetes Planctomycetaceae 4831Planctomyces brasiliensis −0.566052 0.0348503 0.035270589 FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 4510 termite gut homogenate −0.5663472 0.03473460.035270589 clone Rs-Q53 bacterium Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3767Lactobacillus suebicus str. −0.5665992 0.03463607 0.035270589 CECT 5917TFirmicutes Peptococc/ 709 Selenomonas ruminantium −0.5670817 0.034447980.035270589 Acidaminococc str. S20 Proteobacteria Unclassified 9884forested wetland clone −0.5671464 0.03442282 0.035270589 RCP2-62Firmicutes Leuconostocaceae 3497 Weissella koreensis S-5673 −0.56739390.03432668 0.035270589 Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3713 Enterococcuscecorum str. −0.5677953 0.03417121 0.035270589 ATCC43198 FirmicutesLactobacillaceae 3566 Lactobacillus pontis str. LTH −0.56907560.03367873 0.035270589 2587 Firmicutes Unclassified 4536 Mono Lake atdepth 35 m −0.5692171 0.03362463 0.035270589 station 6 Jul. 2000 cloneML635J-14 G + C Firmicutes Unclassified 3481 −0.5692343 0.033618060.035270589 Proteobacteria Syntrophobacteraceae 9661 DCP-dechlorinating−0.5696648 0.0334539 0.035270589 consortium clone SHD-1 ProteobacteriaDesulfobacteraceae 10364 marine surface sediment −0.5697152 0.033434690.035270589 clone SB2 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 2943 human thigh woundisolate −0.5708144 0.03301837 0.035270589 str. MDA2477 FirmicutesEnterococcaceae 3318 Enterococcus ratti str. ATCC −0.5711715 0.032883930.035270589 700914 Bacteroidetes Porphyromonadaceae 6012 mouse fecesclone L11-6 −0.5712018 0.03287255 0.035270589 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae4554 termite gut clone Rs-068 −0.571372 0.03280865 0.035270589Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3490 Lactobacillus suntoryeus str.−0.5714735 0.03277059 0.035270589 LH Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4582swine intestine clone p-2600- −0.5725013 0.03238692 0.035270589 9F5Firmicutes Peptococc/ 242 Desulfosporosinus orientis −0.57266630.03232564 0.035270589 Acidaminococc str. DSMZ 7493 FirmicutesStreptococcaceae 3907 aortic heart valve patient −0.5727726 0.032286220.035270589 with endocarditis clone v6 Firmicutes Peptococc/ 710Centipeda periodontii str. −0.5729265 0.03222922 0.035270589Acidaminococc HB-2 Cyanobacteria Chloroplasts 5183 Pisum sativum -chloroplast −0.5756529 0.03123133 0.035270589 Cyanobacteria Chloroplasts5192 Cycas revoluta −0.5759699 0.03111681 0.035270589 FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 2991 rumen clone 3C3d-8 −0.5761139 0.031064870.035270589 Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3881 Enterococcus dispar str.−0.5764427 0.03094657 0.035270589 LMG 13521 BacteroidetesFlavobacteriaceae 5836 Capnocytophaga granulosa −0.5766249 0.030881160.035270589 str. LMG 12119; FDC SD4 Firmicutes Peptococc/ 300benzene-contaminated −0.5787987 0.03010865 0.035270589 Acidaminococcgroundwater clone ZZ12C8 Bacteroidetes Unclassified 5784 fruiting bodyPleurotus −0.5792647 0.02994496 0.035270589 eryngii clone PE01Firmicutes Bacillaceae 3848 Bacillus sp. str. TUT1007 −0.57939540.02989915 0.035270589 Firmicutes Carnobacteriaceae 3792 Carnobacteriumsp. str. D35 −0.5804968 0.02951531 0.035270589 FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 4533 termite gut homogenate −0.581153 0.029288350.035270589 clone Rs-N06 bacterium Unclassified Unclassified 651−0.5811737 0.02928121 0.035270589 Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 6246crevicular epithelial cells −0.5814157 0.02919784 0.035270589 cloneBU084 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 4434 termite gut homogenate −0.58148260.02917485 0.035270589 clone Rs-K11 bacterium FirmicutesLactobacillaceae 3418 Lactobacillus subsp. aviarius −0.58148920.02917259 0.035270589 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4297 −0.58189520.02903323 0.035270589 Proteobacteria Polyangiaceae 9671 hydrothermalsediment clone −0.5821323 0.02895206 0.035270589 AF420357 FirmicutesAcholeplasmataceae 3976 −0.5828049 0.0287228 0.035270589 FirmicutesAcholeplasmataceae 3961 Clover yellow edge −0.5834912 0.028490250.035270589 mycoplasma-like organism Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae5301 −0.5838861 0.02835706 0.035270589 Firmicutes Streptococcaceae 3685Streptococcus gordonii str. −0.5840426 0.02830442 0.035270589 ATCC 10558Actinobacteria Micrococcaceae 2063 Rothia dentocariosa str. −0.58495910.02799754 0.035270589 ATCC 17931 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4272 termitegut homogenate −0.5856846 0.02775641 0.035270589 clone Rs-M34 bacteriumSynergistes Unclassified 353 UASB reactor granular −0.5862744 0.027561530.035270589 sludge clone PD-UASB-13 G + C Fusobacteria Fusobacteriaceae721 human mouth clone −0.5863706 0.02752982 0.035270589 P2PB_51Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4524 termite gut clone Rs-093 −0.58722180.0272506 0.035270589 Firmicutes Acholeplasmataceae 4045 Chinaberryyellows −0.5874789 0.0271667 0.035270589 phytoplasma FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 4155 termite gut homogenate −0.5883278 0.026890950.035270589 clone Rs-K92 bacterium Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3703Lactobacillus salivarius str. −0.5896055 0.02647992 0.035270589 RA2115Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4622 termite gut clone Rs-L36 −0.5908710.02607745 0.035270589 Firmicutes Aerococcaceae 3833 Carnobacterium−0.5911531 0.02598836 0.035270589 alterfunditum FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 4540 termite gut homogenate −0.5918608 0.025765880.035270589 clone Rs-M18 bacterium Firmicutes Streptococcaceae 3251Streptococcus cristatus str. −0.5919206 0.02574714 0.035270589 ATCC51100 TM7 Unclassified 2697 midgut homogenate −0.591935 0.025742650.035270589 Pachnoda ephippiata larva clone PeM47 ChloroflexiUnclassified 258 DCP-dechlorinating −0.5925901 0.02553809 0.035270589consortium clone SHD-14 Firmicutes Aerococcaceae 3840 Trichococcuspasteurii str. −0.5926609 0.02551607 0.035270589 KoTa2 ProteobacteriaNeisseriaceae 8143 subgingival dental plaque −0.5935762 0.025232530.035270589 clone AK105 Firmicutes Acholeplasmataceae 3975 Blackraspberry witches'- −0.5940016 0.02510154 0.035270589 broom phytoplasmastr. BRWB witches'-broom Firmicutes Streptococcaceae 3543 −0.59753650.02403278 0.035270589 Chloroflexi Unclassified 2339 uranium milltailings soil −0.6019879 0.02273596 0.035270589 sample clone Sh765B-TzT-20 bacterium Firmicutes Unclassified 3289 Isobaculum melis CCUG−0.6020217 0.02272631 0.035270589 37660T Firmicutes Clostridiaceae 4475termite gut homogenate −0.6038353 0.02221351 0.035270589 clone Rs-N02bacterium Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3598 Enterococcus solitarius str.−0.6071271 0.02130506 0.035270589 DSM 5634 Firmicutes Clostridiaceae4310 termite gut clone Rs-056 −0.6072521 0.02127112 0.035270589Firmicutes Enterococcaceae 3680 Melissococcus plutonius str. −0.6095240.02066141 0.035270589 NCDO 2440 Firmicutes Peptococc/ 150 −0.61662940.01883948 0.035270589 Acidaminococc Chlorobi Unclassified 549benzene-degrading nitrate- −0.6183396 0.01841973 0.035270589 reducingconsortium clone Cart-N2 bacterium Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3526Lactobacillus sakei −0.6198186 0.01806246 0.035270589 FirmicutesLachnospiraceae 4281 granular sludge clone −0.6271224 0.016374640.035270589 UASB_brew_B86 Bacteroidetes Flavobacteriaceae 5726Bergeyella sp. oral AK152 −0.6281038 0.01615736 0.035270589 cloneFirmicutes Lachnospiraceae 4512 granular sludge clone −0.63200730.01531468 0.035270589 UASB_brew_B25 Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 4331granular sludge clone −0.6379284 0.01410088 0.035270589 UASB_brew_B84Firmicutes Lactobacillaceae 3547 Lactobacillus frumenti str. −0.53245160.04998019 0.035270589 TMW 1.666

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method of treating sinusitis in an individualin need thereof comprising: administering at least one bacterial specieslisted in Table X to the individual, wherein at least one of thebacterial species is a Lactic Acid Bacterial (LAB) species; allowing thebacterial species to colonize sinonasal mucosa of the individual,thereby treating sinusitis in the individual.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein at least five bacterial species listed in Table X areadministered.
 3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein Lactobacillus sakeiis administered.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein one bacterial speciesis administered, and the bacterial species is Lactobacillus sakei. 5.The method of any one of the foregoing claims, wherein the colonizedsinonasal mucosa is the maxillary sinus.
 6. The method of any one of theforegoing claims, wherein the at least one bacterial species isadministered nasally or to the sinuses.
 7. The method of any one of theforegoing claims, further comprising detecting the microbial diversityof the sinus mucosa of the individual.
 8. The method of any one of theforegoing claims, further comprising detecting the relative level ofCorynebacterium in a mucosal sample from the individual, and comparingthe relative level of Corynebacterium in the sample to a control ofCorynebacterium levels.
 9. A pharmaceutical composition comprising atleast one bacterial species listed in Table X, wherein at least one ofthe bacterial species is a Lactic Acid Bacterial (LAB) species, and apharmaceutically acceptable excipient suitable for nasal administration.10. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 9, comprising at least fivebacterial species listed in Table X.
 11. The pharmaceutical compositionof claim 9, comprising Lactobacillus sakei.
 12. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 9, consisting essentially of one bacterial species,wherein the bacterial species is Lactobacillus sakei.
 13. A method ofimproving the sinus microbiota in an individual comprising:administering at least one bacterial species listed in Table X to theindividual, wherein at least one of the bacterial species is a LacticAcid Bacterial (LAB) species; allowing the bacterial species to colonizesinonasal mucosa of the individual, thereby improving the sinusmicrobiota in the individual.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein atleast five bacterial species listed in Table X are administered.
 15. Themethod of any one of claims 13-15, wherein Lactobacillus sakei isadministered.
 16. The method of claim 13, wherein one bacterial speciesis administered, and the bacterial species is Lactobacillus sakei. 17.The method of any one of claims 13-16, wherein the colonized sinonasalmucosa is the maxillary sinus.
 18. The method of any one of claims13-17, further comprising detecting the microbial diversity of thesinonasal mucosa of the individual.
 19. The method of any one of claims13-18, further comprising detecting the relative level ofCorynebacterium in a mucosal sample from the individual, and comparingthe relative level of Corynebacterium in the sample to a control ofCorynebacterium levels.
 20. A method of determining whether anindividual has or is at risk of developing sinusitis, comprising:detecting the relative level of Corynebacteria in a mucosal sample fromthe individual, comparing the relative level of Corynebacteria in thesample to a control of Corynebacteria levels, and determining that theindividual has or is at risk of developing sinusitis where the relativelevel of Corynebacteria in the sample is (i) higher than the control,wherein the control is a non-sinusitis control or (ii) in the range ofthe control, wherein the control is a sinusitis-positive control. 21.The method of claim 20, wherein the Corynebacteria is Corynebacteriumtuberculostearicum.
 22. The method of claim 20 or 21, wherein themucosal sample is from the maxillary sinus of the individual.
 23. Themethod of any one of claims 20-22, comprising obtaining a mucosal samplefrom the maxillary sinus of the individual before detecting.
 24. Themethod of any one of claims 20-23, further comprising administering asinusitis therapeutic agent to the individual.
 25. The method of claim24, wherein the sinusitis therapeutic is a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising at least one bacterial species listed in Table X, wherein atleast one of the bacterial species is a Lactic Acid Bacterial (LAB)species.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the sinusitis therapeuticis a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least five bacterialspecies listed in Table X.
 27. The method of claim 25 or 26, wherein thepharmaceutical composition comprises Lactobacillus sakei.